Cast Steels
Cast steel is similar to wrought steel in terms of its chemical content, i.e., it has much less carbon than cast iron. The mechanical properties of cast steel are superior to cast iron but inferior to wrought steel. Its principal advantage is ease of fabrication by sand or investment (lost wax) casting. Cast steel is classed according to its carbon content into low carbon (< 0.2%), medium carbon (0.2–0.5%) and high carbon (> 0.5%). Alloy cast steels are also made containing other elements for high strength and heat resistance. The tensile strengths of cast steel alloys range from about 65 to 200 kpsi (450 to 1380 MPa).
Wrought Steels
The term “wrought” refers to all processes that manipulate the shape of the material without melting it. Hot rolling and cold rolling are the two most common methods used though many variants exist, such as wire drawing, deep drawing, extrusion, and cold heading. The common denominator is a deliberate yielding of the material to change its shape either at room or at elevated temperatures.
HOT-ROLLED STEEL is produced by forcing hot billets of steel through sets of rollers or dies which progressively change their shape into I-beams, channel sections, angle irons, flats, squares, rounds, tubes, sheets, plates, etc. The surface finish of hot-rolled shapes is rough due to oxidation at the elevated temperatures. The mechanical properties are also relatively low because the material ends up in an annealed or normalized state unless deliberately heat-treated later. This is the typical choice for low-carbon structural steel members used for building- and machine-frame construction. Hot-rolled material is also used for machine parts that will be subjected to extensive machining (gears, cams, etc.) where the initial finish of the stock is irrelevant and uniform, non cold-worked material properties are desired in advance of a planned heat treatment. A wide variety of alloys and carbon contents are available in hot-rolled form.
COLD-ROLLED STEEL is produced from billets or hot-rolled shapes. The shape is brought to final form and size by rolling between hardened steel rollers or drawing through dies at room temperature. The rolls or dies burnish the surface and cold work the material, increasing its strength and reducing its ductility as was described in the section on mechanical forming and hardening above. The result is a material with good surface finish and accurate dimensions compared to hot-rolled material. Its strength and hardness are increased at the expense of significant built-in strains, which can later be released during machining, welding, or heat treating, then causing distortion. Cold rolled shapes commonly available are sheets, strips, plates, round and rectangular bars, tubes, etc. Structural shapes such as I-beams are typically available only as hot rolled.
Steel Numbering Systems
Several steel numbering systems are in general use. The ASTM, AISI, and SAE have devised codes to define the alloying elements and carbon content of steels. Table1lists some of the AISI/SAE designations for commonly used steel alloys. The first two digits indicate the principal alloying elements. The last two digits indicate the amount of carbon present, expressed in hundredths of a percent. ASTM and the SAE have developed a new Unified Numbering System for all metal alloys, which uses the prefix UNS followed by a letter and a 5-digit number. The letter defines the alloy category, F for cast iron, G for carbon and low-alloy steels, K for special-purpose steels, S for stainless steels, and T for tool steels. For the G series, the numbers are the same as the AISI/SAE designations in Table 1 with a trailing zero added. For example, SAE 4340 becomes UNS G43400. The AISI/SAE designations for steels is used here.
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| Table 1: AISI/SAE Designation of Steel Alloys (A partial list) |
PLAIN CARBON STEEL is designated by a first digit of 1 and a second digit of 0, since no alloys other than carbon are present. The low-carbon steels are those numbered AISI 1005 to 1030, medium-carbon from 1035 to 1055, and high-carbon from 1060 to 1095. The AISI 11xx series adds sulphur, principally to improve machinability. These are called free-machining steels and are not considered alloy steels as the sulphur does not improve the mechanical properties and also makes it brittle. The ultimate tensile strength of plain carbon steel can vary from about 60 to 150 kpsi (414 to 1034 MPa) depending on heat treatment.
ALLOY STEELS have various elements added in small quantities to improve the material’s strength, hardenability, temperature resistance, corrosion resistance, and other properties. Any level of carbon can be combined with these alloying elements. Chromium is added to improve strength, ductility, toughness, wear resistance, and hardenability. Nickel is added to improve strength without loss of ductility, and it also enhances case hardenability. Molybdenum, used in combination with nickel and/or chromium, adds hardness, reduces brittleness, and increases toughness. Many other alloys in various combinations, as shown in Table 1, are used to achieve specific properties. Specialty steel manufacturers are the best source of information and assistance for the engineer trying to find the best material for any application. The ultimate tensile strength of alloy steels can vary from about 80 to 300 kpsi (550 to 2070 MPa), depending on its alloying elements and heat treatment. Figure 1 shows engineering stress-strain curves from tensile tests of three steels.
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| Figure 1: Tensile Test Stress-Strain Curve for Three Steel Alloys |
TOOL STEELS are medium- to high-carbon alloy steels especially formulated to give very high hardness in combination with wear resistance and sufficient toughness to resist the shock loads experienced in service as cutting tools, dies and molds. There is a very large variety of tool steels available. Refer to the manufacturers' literature for more information.
STAINLESS STEELS are alloy steels containing at least 10% chromium and offer much improved corrosion resistance over plain or alloy steels, though their name should not be taken too literally. Stainless steels will stain and corrode (slowly) in severe environments such as seawater. Some stainless-steel alloys have improved resistance to high temperature. There are four types of stainless steel, called martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, and precipitation hardening.
Martensitic stainless steel contains 11.5 to 15% Cr and 0.15 to 1.2% C, is magnetic, can be hardened by heat treatment, and is commonly used for cutlery.
Ferritic stainless steel has over 16% Cr and a low carbon content, is magnetic, soft, and ductile, but is not heat treatable though its strength can be increased modestly by cold working. It is used for deep-drawn parts such as cookware and has better corrosion resistance than the martensitic SS. The ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are both called 400 series stainless steel.
Austenitic stainless steel is alloyed with 17 to 25% chromium and 10 to 20% nickel. It has better corrosion resistance due to the nickel, is nonmagnetic, and has excellent ductility and toughness. It cannot be hardened except by cold working. It is classed as 300 series stainless steel.
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are designated by their alloy percentages followed by the letters PH, as in 17-4 PH which contains 17% chromium and 4% nickel. These alloys offer high strength and high temperature and corrosion resistance.
The 300 series stainless steels are very weldable but the 400 series are less so. All grades of stainless steel have poorer heat conductivity than regular steel and many of the stainless alloys are difficult to machine. All stainless steels are significantly more expensive than regular steel. See Tables 2 - 4 for some mechanical properties.
STAINLESS STEELS are alloy steels containing at least 10% chromium and offer much improved corrosion resistance over plain or alloy steels, though their name should not be taken too literally. Stainless steels will stain and corrode (slowly) in severe environments such as seawater. Some stainless-steel alloys have improved resistance to high temperature. There are four types of stainless steel, called martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, and precipitation hardening.
Martensitic stainless steel contains 11.5 to 15% Cr and 0.15 to 1.2% C, is magnetic, can be hardened by heat treatment, and is commonly used for cutlery.
Ferritic stainless steel has over 16% Cr and a low carbon content, is magnetic, soft, and ductile, but is not heat treatable though its strength can be increased modestly by cold working. It is used for deep-drawn parts such as cookware and has better corrosion resistance than the martensitic SS. The ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are both called 400 series stainless steel.
Austenitic stainless steel is alloyed with 17 to 25% chromium and 10 to 20% nickel. It has better corrosion resistance due to the nickel, is nonmagnetic, and has excellent ductility and toughness. It cannot be hardened except by cold working. It is classed as 300 series stainless steel.
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are designated by their alloy percentages followed by the letters PH, as in 17-4 PH which contains 17% chromium and 4% nickel. These alloys offer high strength and high temperature and corrosion resistance.
The 300 series stainless steels are very weldable but the 400 series are less so. All grades of stainless steel have poorer heat conductivity than regular steel and many of the stainless alloys are difficult to machine. All stainless steels are significantly more expensive than regular steel. See Tables 2 - 4 for some mechanical properties.
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| Table 2: Mechanical Properties of some Stainless Steel Alloy |
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| Table 3: Mechanical Properties of Some Carbon Steels |
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| Table 4: Mechanical Properties of some Alloy and Tool Steels |
